Outline: Police and American Civil Rights

Ethnicity and the Police Part I: Outline Ethnicity and the Police Part I: Outline (1) Introduction (a) Police corruption (b) Citizen complaints relative to ethnicity (2) Body (a) Police corruption i. Prevalence of police corruption ii. High levels of police corruption iii. Several Cases of police Misconduct (b) Violation of Amendments i. Abuse of power (c) Citizen complaints against the police i. African American civil rights groups (d) Controlling Police Officer Behavior in the Field i. Using what we know to regulate police ii. Initiated stops and prevent racially biased policing 3) Conclusion (a) Police corruption and citizen complaints relative to ethnicity Over the years, the police have been involved in unethical events that have made the community no longer trust them. These events will never be erased in the eyes of society. The worst part is that now the racial acts, abuse of authority and violation of human rights are over the hot spot. With all these unethical acts, the pol ice department is leaving the worst impression in many minority communities, because of the corruption and brutality that comes from the police patrolling the areas.The police should leave a positive impression with the communities that they serve, this way the police will be able to ask the community for help when needed. Peacemaking is the basic duty of the police force; if police is caught doing things that is not ethical in the community eyes the situation in the community will not change. The public perception of the police is the criminal justice system should work on the factors that cause the public to lower their trust in the way police treats their communities.Making better police in the community can result if there is better cooperation from the criminal justice system. The way police handles combating crime and brutality most attempts to redeem police image would involve education for both public and the police on the effectiveness crime control measures. References Sta ples, R. (2011). WHITE POWER, BLACK CRIME, AND RACIAL POLITICS. Black Scholar,  41(4), 31. Taslitz, A. E. (2003). RESPECT AND THE FOURTH AMENDMENT. Journal Of Criminal Law & Criminology,  94(1), 15.

Lev Vygotsky’s Theory Essay

The development or the growing-up process of a child has been considered as the most critical and crucial part of a person’s life. It is in this stage where most changes take place which determines the strength or weakness of the foundations of one’s skills and capabilities as he or she grows up. Human development has also been an interesting topic or research in the field of psychology over the years. Theories and concepts have been formulated and developed in order to create a wide understanding of the process of human development as it plays a significant part in a person’s foundation as an adult. The developmental process of a child includes several aspects like the physiological, emotional, and cognitive development. In this paper, the focus shall be on cognitive development and the process of language acquisition, as proposed and theorized by Lev Vygotsky. What is Cognitive Development and Language Acquisition? Cognitive development is a part of the overall dynamic process of human maturity. In current media, a lot of products like milk, supplements, and health commodities for children have been advertised to contribute on improving the wellness of a child’s cognitive development. This shows how the current society values this aspect of child development with special importance. Cognitive development pertains to how an individual understands and grasps ideas through learned factors and genetics as well. This developmental aspect is made up of five fields, namely, information processing, intelligence, reasoning, language development, and memory (Wells, 2008). Understanding the whole cognitive development of a child may not be complete without understanding these core fields. However, this paper shall focus on one area which is language development. The definition of intelligence and cognitive development has also become a popular debate among psychologists like Vygotsky and Piaget. Piaget defines intelligence as the ability of an individual to adapt to his or her environment through several adaptation models which include the concepts of assimilation and accommodation, both of which place stronger emphasis on the individual (cited in Lloyd, 1995). On the other hand, Vygotsky argues that cognitive development refers to the capacity of a person to learn through instruction with an emphasis on the environment. Moreover, Vygotsky saw the capability of individuals to learn through instruction as the basic feature of human intelligence (cited in Lloyd, 1995). In medical terms, language development can be identified as the process wherein the complexity of symbols, sounds, and meanings combined is being expanded steadily. This process shall depend on how a person interprets, understands, and perceives objects and symbols as influenced by his or her environment and learning process (Biology Online, 2005). Among children, especially those of 1 to 2 years of age, the early developments in language can be very well observed in their constant cooing, imitation of adult sounds and words, babbling, and use of shortened words and sentences (Biology Online, 2005). Lev Vygotsky’s Views on the Roots of Though and Language Lev Semenovich Vygotsky is a German psychologist who explained and expounded on the genetic approach to the early developments of thoughts and concepts in human development. He connected the changes and transitions occurring in this process from childhood to adulthood through a series of human developmental stages (Marxist Internet Archive, 1990). Although his theories have been rejected in the United States during the earlier part of the political conflict between the U. S. and Soviet Union, his works still became popular as the Cold War ended up to present date. His works basically revolved around the roots of thought and language. It will be easier to understand Vygotsky’s theories in psychology by understanding the main arguments from which his theories are rooted from. His main arguments about intelligence and cognitions state that, (1) thinking is understood developmentally in terms of its roots and succeeding growth at the individual and cultural levels of analysis; (2) thinking is interceded by semiotic mechanisms like speech which can be considered as the most powerful of such mechanisms; and (3) there are certain thinking processes like problem solving, voluntary memory, and self-regulation which have roots from social processes and interactions (Vygotsky cited in Goswami, 2004). As one may observe, more often than not, Vygotsky used the terms â€Å"speech† and â€Å"thinking† than language and thought. This preference to use such terms was believed to be linked with his perception of speech as a social or shared process (Lloyd, 1995). For Vygotsky, the developments of thinking and speech are two separate entities: thought being non-verbal and language being non-intellectual. However, he explained that during a specific time in a person’s life (around the age of two), the lines of development of these two areas start to meet again to induce the creation of a new behavior (Vygotsky cited in Schutz, 2004). He was able to expound his positions on this concept as he noted that, (1) thinking and speech have different roots at the start of their development; (2) at the beginning, there will be a pre-intellectual stage for speech and a pre-linguistic stage for thought; (3) there will come a point in time when these two aspects shall follow different curves unaffected with each other; (4) at a second point, their curves shall meet where thought will turn verbal, and speech, on the other hand, will turn rational; and lastly, (5) thinking and speech are not always overlying each other (Lloyd, 1995). Vygotsky’s theory has also been particular about the construction of words and acquisition of word meanings. He explains that the formation of word and word meaning is in a way related to how a child perceives a problem in communicating with his or her guardian. Vygotsky claims that word meanings are derived from the problem of not knowing what to call or how to describe a specific object, feeling, or thought, which the child usually asks from an adult (cited in Schutz, 2004). Vygotsky also acquired interest in understanding the possibilities that language may indeed affect how a person thinks. In contrast to Piaget’s focus on children’s egocentric and private speech, Vygotsky dealt with language as a form of social communication which progressively supports both language and thinking process. Applications of Vygotsky’s Constructivist Cognition Concept to a Child’s Education and Language formation Vygotsky’s Language Acquistion Theory has been influenced by the constructivist approach. In constructivism, problem solving is the core idea of all forms of learning, thinking, and development; that is, as a child encounters a problem and discovers consequences for its solutions, he or she eventually forms his or her thinking and understanding of a certain concept (Vygotsky cited in Brewer, 2007). In the constructivist view, prior knowledge plays a big part on how a child will perceive things as he or she grows up; that is, it is important for the learner to be able to construct new information into his or her current knowledge because the information connected to the learner’s prior experiences shall be forgotten easily. In application to real life situations, teachers can try to learn about the children’s prior knowledge about a specific problem or a specific topic which confuses them in order to gauge what the children already know and help them understand different experiences (Brewer, 2007). In relation to language development, Vygotsky also coined the concept of the zone of proximal development, which emphasizes that children acquire knowledge about objects and concepts they see as confusing through directed interactions from guardians, teachers, and parents. He explained that what children learn with the guidance and assistance of people around them appears to be a lot more suggestive of their learning development compared to what they usually do alone (Vygotsky, 1987, qtd. in Lloyd, 1995). Thus, speech and word meaning which is acquired by a child alone may not give him or her the utmost linguistic potential he or she can have. Language development as well as the other aspects of development a child goes through in the early years is highly important regardless of the learning genre or theory followed. Theories like Vygotsky’s language acquisition theory are formulated to give people specific basis of the different developmental processes. A child’s language development is never as plain as teaching him or her words and names; rather, it is a complex process which involves crucial elements and key areas where parents, teachers, and concerned guardians have to focus on in order to help the child realize his or her full potential. References Biology Online. (2005, October 3). Language Development.Retrieved November 14, 2008 from http://www. biology-online. org/dictionary/Language_development Brewer, W. (2007). Learning theory: Constructivist approach. Answers. com. Retrieved November 14, 2008 from http://www. answers. com/topic/learning-theory-constructivist-approach Goswami, U. (2004). Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Cognitive Development. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. Lloyd. P. (1995). Psychology: Cognitive and Language Development. Leicester, UK: British Psychological Society. Marxist Internet Archive. (1990). Vygotsky, Lev Semenovich (1896-1934). Retrieved November 14, 2008 from http://www. marxists. org/glossary/people/v/y. htm#vygotsky-lev Schutz, R. (2004, December 5). Vygotsky & language acquisition. English Made in Brazil. Retrieved November 14, 2008 from http://www. sk. com. br/sk-vygot. html Wells, K. R. (2008). Cognitive development. Encyclopedia of Children’s Health. Retrieved November 14, 2008 from http://www. healthofchildren. com/C/Cognitive-Development. html

Absurdism

1 This thesis has been approved by The Honors Tutorial College and the School of Theater Dr. William F. Condee Director of Studies, Theater Tutorial Program Thesis Advisor Dr. Angela Ahlgren Visiting Assistant Professor Thesis Advisor Jeremy Webster Dean, Honors Tutorial College 2 HAPPY DAYS: A MODERN WOMAN’S APPROACH TO ABSURDISM THROUGH FEMINIST THEATER THEORY A Thesis Presented to The Honors Tutorial College Ohio University In Partial Fulfilment Of the Requirements for Graduation From The Honors Tutorial College With the degree of Bachelor of Fine Arts in TheaterBy: Rachel Collins 3 Table Of Contents Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦4 On Absurdism†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 6 On Beckett†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 10 Happy Days Production History†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 16 Feminist Theater†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦18 Beckett and Gender (Happy Days)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 23 Happy Days in Performance: A Feminist Perspective (Process)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 34 Happy Days in Performance: Reflection†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 40 Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦48 Annotated Bibliography†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 52 Creative SupplementaryMaterials†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦59 Happy Days Rehearsal Notes†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 59 Happy Days Rehearsal Script†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦74 Happy Days Program and Event Flier†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 92 Happy Days Production Photos†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 94 4 Introduction This thesis examines the character of Winnie in Samuel Beckett’s Happy Days through performance and the lens of feminist theory and critique. In the wake of the Second World War, a number of artists in Europe attempted to find meaning in what some considered a meaningless world.The war had ravaged Europe, and it was difficult to find hope across the continent. Many artists during this time were concerned with existentialist ideas. These new social constructs led dramatists to experiment with new forms, which dealt with these existentialist philosophies through a dramatic medium. These forms experimented with l anguage, de-railed linear plotlines, and placed characters in bizarre situations. Martin Esslin, the producerjournalist turned scholar, coined the phrase â€Å"the Theatre of the Absurd† in his book of the same title. One of the major writers of this new form of drama was Samuel Beckett.Since Beckett’s plays began to be performed in the 1950’s, theater critics have typically viewed performances of Beckett’s works through the lens of existentialism, and his style prompted many to consider him an absurdist. Absurdist theories were able to frame the dramatic works for that time, but as the social constructs of Western culture, especially those concerning women, have changed, so has dramatic criticism of women. As half a century has passed since the initial writing of Beckett’s plays, it is important to consider them, especially those with strong female characters, through a modern feminist critique.Beckett’s writing took place during the second women’s movement. The Second World War had changed people’s views on morality, and society was forced to 5 redefine its standards. Before the First World War, class structure in Europe was rigidly defined. People â€Å"knew their place† and the gap between the rich and the poor was almost un-crossable. The war created opportunities for the lower class to advance in social position, but once it was over, society attempted to return to its pre-War structure. This cycle happened again after the Second World War.During the war, oppressed peoples in Europe were allowed to do things that they hadn’t been able to previously, but once it was over they were expected to return to their place in society. In Europe these people, including racial and religious minorities, the working class, and women, were fed up with these constraints. Women in particular strove to gain more equality in the job market and other venues. Beckett was in the interesting position of writ ing in the midst of this social revolution. In many ways, he was very familiar with the old world and traditions, where women’s place in society was subservient to her husband.But he was also looking forward to what the future could bring. His work in many ways anticipated the second women’s movement. Beckett’s early dramatic works are filled with male characters. Each of these men is attempting to answer the most basic of life’s questions: Who are we and why are we here? However, it was not until 1961 with Happy Days that he gave the stage over completely to the voice of a woman. In Waiting for Godot, Endgame, and Krapp’s Last Tape, women were not given a strong voice on the stage’s playing space. With Happy Days and the character of Winnie, Beckett gave women a voice in his work.Traditionally, Happy Days has been viewed through an existentialist lens, much in the same way that Beckett’s other works are 6 viewed. This study, however, attempts to re-frame Happy Days through a new set of scholarly examinations: the ideas of feminist theory and theatrical performance. Through scholarly research and performance of the piece, I looked at this important work from a new perspective. In the twenty-first century, an actress cannot approach the part with the same background as a woman playing the role in the early 1960’s.While it is important to look at plays within the historical context and tradition in which they were originally performed, this view limits the performer. If one was to only look at a piece of work historically and not interpret it using modern approaches, theater would, I believe, eventually become stale and no longer relevant to the world other than from a historical museum. Happy Days needs a new evaluation. It is time to examine it through the eyes of a modern-day woman, because that is the person who will be performing this role today.On Absurdism Absurdism was a deviation from traditional F rench theater but not conscience movement in itself. At the beginning of the twentieth century the avant-garde movement was regarded in the same vein as the symbolists of the late nineteenth century: their art was attempting to achieve the same results. Symbolists were reacting against the naturalist and realist forms of art and believed that the only way to represent the truth and meaning of life was to do it indirectly, instead of through exact imitation of reality.Much of the world was trying to recover after two large-scale wars. During the late 1940’s and the 1950’s, the French were interested in looking at the past for inspiration for their drama. Myths, legends, and symbols were primarily 7 used as subject matter. Particular emphasis was placed on the structure of language, for â€Å"the ‘poetic avant-garde’ represent[ed] a different mood; it is more lyrical, and far less violent and grotesque† than the theater of the absurd (Esslin 25). Prod uctions tackled the mystery of dreams and desire through traditional dramatic conventions.Paris, which has been the cradle of a number of new artistic movements, was the birthplace for new schools of thought, and the avant-garde of Paris drama â€Å" is this part of the ‘anti-literary’ movement of our time, which has found its expression in abstract painting, with its rejection of ‘literary’ elements in pictures; or in the ‘new novel’ in France, with its reliance on the description of objects and its rejection of empathy and anthropomorphism† (Esslin 26). Theater artists realized that this was an important advancement for their art form as well, and began to experiment with these forms through dramatic constructs.Esslin choose the word â€Å"absurd† to describe these plays based on the word’s definition, which means â€Å"out of harmony with reason or propriety; incongruous, unreasonable, illogical† (Esslin 23). The work of the absurdist playwrights, including Samuel Beckett, Eugene Ionesco, Harold Pinter, Edward Albee, Tom Stoppard, and David Mamet, carry these attributes. Most of these dramatists claimed they are not trying to be â€Å"absurdist. † Even Esslin, who coined the phrase, states that â€Å"the writers in question [are] individuals[s] who regard themselves as lone outsiders, cut off and isolated in his private world† (22).This phrase has, however, been accepted widely to describe plays of this type, because the authors in question â€Å"can be seen as the 8 reflection of what seems to be the attitude most genuinely representative of that era in style, execution, and philosophy† (Esslin 22-23). Esslin borrowed these notions of existentialism from the ideas of Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus. Camus’ essay â€Å"The Myth of Sisyphus† (1942) deals with existential issues, such as a lack of a God or omnipotent presence and fixed moral standards. Thro ughout the essay he stages an argument around suicide to examine what he considers the absurdity of life.In short, he believes that â€Å"the absurd enlightens [himself] on this point: there is no future† (Camus 58). He delves into the idea that life has no true purpose, and even when many humans discover how mundane life is, they still choose to continue living. Esslin quotes Camus: A world that can be explained by reasoning, however faulty, is a familiar world. But in a universe that is suddenly deprived of illusions and of light, man feels a stranger. His is an irremediable exile, because he is deprived of memories of a lost homeland as much as he lacks the hope of a promised land to come.This divorce between man and his life, the actor and his setting, truly constitutes the feeling of absurdity. (Camus qtd. in Esslin 18) With these ideas of man’s insignificant place in the world, humans, not God, determine their own existence. In the absence of the influence of a h igher power, there is no longer any certainty in an afterlife, or in anything, as humans are fallible beings. This then creates a philosophy that is based more on the individual versus the collective. Sartre on the other hand explains a more hopeful interpretation of existentialism.While Camus stresses the human’s inability to break the cycle of absurdity, Sartre asserts that humans are absurd because their free will always puts 9 them in complete control of their fate. In his book Existentialism and Human Emotions, Sartre asserts: Man is condemned to be free. Condemned, because he did not create himself, yet, in other respects is free; because once thrown into the world, he is responsible for everything he does. The existentialist does not believe in the power of passion. He will never agree that a sweeping passion is a ravaging torrent which fatally leads a man to certain acts and is therefore an excuse.He thinks that man is responsible for his passion (Sartre 23). A person is therefore in complete control of his or her own destiny. There is no God, so there is no set of doctrines or moral code to follow. The only thing that one has to rely upon is his or herself, and that reliance is what creates absurdity. Life has no meaning, because â€Å"before you come alive, life is nothing; it’s up to you to give it a meaning, and value is nothing else but the meaning that you choose† (Sartre 49). Therefore, life is meaningless unless one chooses to give it meaning.The philosophies of Camus and Sartre are critical to understanding the existential elements of the absurdist works. Another aspect of absurdism is that it attempts to create a world that accentuates the strange and bizarre. In short, it â€Å"strives to express its sense of the senselessness of the human condition and the inadequacy of the rational approach by the open abandonment of rational devices and discursive thought† (Esslin 24). It has a chaotic structure that creates th e illusion of an irrational universe. The plots are unclear, as well as the relationship between the characters.There is ambiguity in space, time, and relationships between characters. Words and phrases are repeated so that language itself becomes inadequate and incomprehensible. Reality is skewed so that the viewer does not know the difference between fact and fiction. Plays tend to be 10 cyclical in that they end in the same place they started. These never-ending cycles create an illusion of despair, and remind the audience how continually hopeless life can be. There is also a strong vaudevillian presence within absurdist drama: this creates an element of humour that therwise might be absent, and also highlights that as desperate as life can be, there are still moments of laughter within misery. The plays are funny and tragic at the same time, and they utilize traditional clowning techniques as well as orchestrated pauses to convey their messages. Therefore, â€Å"the Theatre of the Absurd has renounced arguing about the absurdity of the human condition; it merely presents it in being† (Esslin 25). Although absurdism is a widely defined genre, Beckett is considered by many scholars to be one of the pioneers of the form.When considering other playwrights and plays as absurdist, many scholars to this day compare the writers and works to Beckett’s canon. Therefore Beckett, although he does not consider himself to be an absurdist writer, is one of the major contributors to this style of theater. His works are numerous and his unique style is what brought absurdism to the forefront of dramatic movements of the late twentieth century. On Beckett Samuel Beckett was born in Dublin, Ireland in 1906 to Protestant middle-class parents. After he pursued his education in Ireland he was offered a teaching fellowship in Paris, which he accepted.There he met James Joyce and a variety of other artists. Joyce, impressed by Beckett, stated that â€Å"he thought Beckett had promise–a rare 11 gesture for him† (Alvarez 12). It was during the late 1940’s and into the early 1950’s that Beckett â€Å"began his lifelong association with Paris† and his fascination with the French language and linguistics in general. It was then that Beckett began writing; he published his first novel Murphy in 1938. After spending time in Ireland with his mother, Beckett returned to Paris when World War Two began.He volunteered for the Red Cross and was involved in the war in many ways, from helping with wounded soldiers, to joining radical political groups and trying to aide France’s war effort. He was forced to flee Paris when friends in a radical political group were arrested. Once the war ended, Beckett returned to Paris. It was during this post-war period that he wrote a number of dramatic works, including his most famous play, Waiting for Godot (Bair 381). After Godot Beckett wrote Endgame (1957) and Krapp’s La st Tape (1958). Shortly after the premier of Krapp he began writing Happy Days in October of 1960.Happy Days came at an interesting time in Beckett’s career: because of the success of Godot, Endgame, and Krapp, â€Å"celebrated playwrights, [and] other dramatists who studied his plays wanted to share their ideas, and in most cases, to pay him homage† (Bair 527). His new fame also caused rifts in Beckett’s personal life. He and his partner Suzanne Deschevaux-Dumesnil were planning on getting married, but wanted to keep the ceremony under wraps. They were making their relationship official because Beckett had realized current French law would not allow Suzanne to inherit the estate or his money if he were to die.They wanted to get married in England because â€Å"as an Irish citizen whose financial affairs were concentrated in 12 England, he had to be married there to insure the legality of the ceremony and Suzanne’s right to inherit his estate† (Bai r 530). However, since Beckett and Suzanne had been living in Paris, he had to reside in England for two weeks before the ceremony was legal, according to English law. During these few weeks, Beckett hid himself from the public eye in the Bristol Hotel and worked on his Happy Days manuscript. Like his early plays, Happy Days is an examination of life in an absurd situation.A woman, Winnie, is buried alive in an ant hill in a scorched landscape, while her husband Willie prattles around behind the landscape. Winnie is first buried up to her bosom and then to her neck in a large hill (presumably an abandoned ant hill, as one single emmet wanders the mound). She spends her days chatting about seemingly mundane nonsense, all with the hope that Willie might just be listening to her. While Winnie endures blistering heat, increased immobility, and a strident bell that keeps her from falling asleep, â€Å"she remains to the bitterest end, implacably optimistic and talkative† (Alvarez 108).Her unfailing hope in the future is both depressing and hopeful. It is her optimism that causes so many audience members to be moved by Winnie. In one Beckett biography, Diedre Bair asserts that as a result of Beckett’s increasing fame, Suzanne found it more difficult than usual to deal with her new husband. According to Bair: She resented his fame and felt that he should have made a more public acknowledgement of her important role in bringing it about. She wanted to be known as the helpmate who had made his success possible.He wanted nothing at all known about himself, least of all details which he considered of no more 13 than domestic import. He felt he had demonstrated his gratitude to her by marrying her when both considered the ceremony a mockery. (533) Bair believes the couple grew apart as the years passed: â€Å"They had nothing in common anymore, but neither thought of parting. Beckett began to envision their relationship as one in ineluctable bondage, and fr om then on, veiled references to their situation began to appear in his writing† (Bair 534).It is conceivable that much of the Happy Days plot was derived from his personal life, because it was written during the events surrounding his secret wedding. Other biographers, including James Knowleson, assert that Beckett and Suzanne had a loving relationship. While they were having problems in their small apartment, they felt if they moved to a bigger space they would have more time to live independently of each other. Therefore, Knowlson notes â€Å"the [bigger apartment] allowed them to live parts of their lives independently-without one disturbing the other, if he or she did not want to be disturbed† (423).Knowlson also mentions in this biography that Beckett had a mistress named Barbara during this part of his life, but that Beckett still felt (even though he waited almost a quarter of a century to marry her) that he was committed to Suzanne. In this account the marriage was troubled, but the couple was working through their problems. Because of their fiercely independent personalities, both wanted and desired independent space: their union worked best when there was a good combination of time together and time apart.It is this examination of Beckett’s married life that is pertinent to Happy Days, as Beckett’s view on the institution of marriage and lifelong commitment is explored throughout the text. 14 As Beckett is from Ireland and his English dialect is influenced by that country, Happy Days has Irish undertones in plot and form. While Beckett spent a majority of his life in France, his strongest ties were to his Irish roots. He was fascinated by the old ways or the old words that the Irish used, such as emmet (an ant). The way Beckett manipulates language is particularly Irish.Beckett’s use of the language is distinctive, utilizing traditional Irish techniques of â€Å"repetitive . . . words or sentences; . . . transforma tions, division, contraction, shortening and lengthening of words; and the minimization of the number of different words per sentence, but also exaggeration through redundance† (Van Slooten 48). Beckett also was very attached to music in the Irish tradition. He wrote to utilize â€Å"vocal techniques and sound effects [including] the sound of vowels and consonants and the alternately winded, syncopated, and pounding rhythms† to shape his texts† (Van Slooten 48).What is most interesting about this concept is the life and mobility that the Irish language gives to a piece like Happy Days, where the central character is trapped in a hill. The dialect itself requires a wide range of emotion and tonality in its expression, so that â€Å"stage directions such as ‘sad’, ‘suppliant’, ‘very excited’, ‘irritated’, ‘laughing’, ‘explosive’, ‘melancholy’, and the individual diction for d ifferent characters indicate how much importance [Beckett] attached to these matters and show how his words should be voiced† (Van Slooten 58).Because of the nature of the language in Happy Days, it is important to evaluate it through the Irish musicality to find the momentum of a play that contains little to no stage movement otherwise. 15 This â€Å"Irishness† can be seen in a London performance of Happy Days at the Old Vic Theater in 1975 (later transferred to the Lyttleton Theater in 1976). In this production, Dame Peggy Ashcroft played Winnie, Harry Lomax played Willie, and Peter Hall directed. Despite Ashcroft’s positive reputation, this particular production received a number of mixed reviews.One reviewer, Rosemary Pountney, believed that Ashcroft’s biggest weakness was her lack of vocal range. She believed that while Ashcroft had a great vocal capacity, Pountney loathed the Irish accent that Ashcroft attempted: Her greatest strength as an actress, the marvellous flexibility of her voice, was flattened and deadened in an attempt to convey an Irish accent—not a strong Irish accent, but, much more difficult for a non-Irish woman, the suggestion of one. A ‘non-accent’ accent resulted, with Dame Peggy’s superb voice not merely out of tune but restricted in its range, as though straitjacketed.Thus Winnie’s fluctuations of mood†¦ were dulled and Act 1 seemed to lack impact (Pountney). Although Ashcroft did not do the dialect justice, Pountney addresses that Beckett had written a musical quality to his dialogue, which in many cases is what â€Å"scores† the actress through the piece. The repetitions in the script work as guidelines and create the score of the production. Pountney was impressed by understanding of the Irish nature of the piece, but not so much their enactment of it.It is important to note that Happy Days was originally written in English, whereas most of Beckett’s w orks were previously written in French. Beckett stated that his reasons for writing in French were because it gave him a strict structure around the language. Because French was not his native language he was forced to be selective when he chose words, he chose words selectively, and did not inadvertently 16 embellish the language (Van Slooten 48). Although he translated all of his plays himself from French to English, there is still an element of sparseness to the language.Since Happy Days was originally in English, the style of the writing is different. Although there are pauses in the dialogue, the sentence structure flows differently than the sparse language of Godot or Endgame. Therefore, Beckett’s use of the English language in my production is paramount to understanding it through performance. Happy Days Production History Happy Days was performed for the first time on September 17, 1961 in New York at the Cherry Lane Theater. The production starred Ruth White as Winni e and John C.Becher as Willie; Alan Schneider directed the production. Schneider and Beckett had a long career as collaborators. Schneider directed a number of Beckett’s plays, including the American premier of Waiting for Godot, and Film? among many others. Because of prior commitments Beckett was unable to come to New York to supervise direction of this production. The two men therefore corresponded in letters to relay information, and according to Bair â€Å"Beckett's letters could easily become a textbook for Happy Days should [anyone] ever decide to publish them† (536).As with any Beckett performance, the directions given to the actors were thoroughly specific, as Bair describes: They are long and painstaking, filled with minute directions for action and how it should correspond to speech; detailed descriptions of lighting, even to the physical properties, brand name and positing of each individual bulb; and a series of drawings in pen and ink done by Beckett to s how exactly how he wanted Winnie and her mound to appear, and what the position of Willie should be at all times in relation to her. (536) 17At many times throughout the process, Schneider was worried that he was not doing Beckett or his script justice, since the directions were so specific. He remained worried until the show opened to an eager audience. The reviews of the play were mixed, as they had been for many Beckett plays before, but the reviewers who liked the production were not shy in their praises. In The New York Times, Howard Taubman praised the performance, especially White’s, stating that she: conveys a profound sense of the dark, empty spaces of Winnie's life. She uses her voice to achieve a remarkable range of nuance.Her eyes, her lips, the very lines in her face suggest mood and feeling. She fusses bravely with the black shopping bag that seems to contain all her worldly possessions. Her attempt to be invincible turns into a pitiable failure. At the end, wit h the silly, feathered little hat atop the head projecting out of the mound, she seems like a puny, weary Earth Mother of a mean, despairing world. (Taubman) The performance was praised for its ability to not only inspire viewers to look at life’s deep existential and sometimes disheartening questions, but also to reveal compassion, which is rare in Beckett’s works (Taubman).Ruth White’s performance was so revered that she received a 1962 Obie Award for Distinguished Performance. While the first few performances were received well, they were still looked at from a primarily masculine perspective. The majority of theater reviewers were male, and so the comments on the productions came from a male perspective. At this time however, a different group of artists was exploring theater from a feminist perspective. They experimented with dramatic forms to ighlight the female experience, which they believed to be lacking in society. It was during the late 1950’s and early 1960’s that feminist theater began to be produced. 18 Feminist Theater For many centuries the theatrical arts were dominated by men. Notable feminist scholar Sue-Ellen Case states that when the second-wave feminist movement began in the early 1960’s, â€Å"the singular term ‘feminism’ was often employed to describe a variety of political and critical realms. This term was interchangeable with the term ‘the women’s movement’† (62).The feminist movement was divided into a number of philosophies. In the theatrical world, there are two major approaches that scholars have identified as self-conscious approaches to feminist work: that of the radical or cultural feminists and that of the materialist feminists, otherwise known as socialist or Marxist feminists. Both of these groups influenced how the experiences of women were presented on stage. The most common form of feminism in the United States and democratic European count ries was what Case identifies as radical feminism.This particular form of feminism â€Å"is based on the belief that the patriarchy is the primary cause of the oppression of women†¦ the patriarchy represents all systems of male dominance and is regarded as the root of most social problems† (Case 64). Radical feminist performers and theater practitioners have concerns with the style of realism, because of â€Å"the nature of realism as a conservative force that reproduces and reinforces dominant cultural relations† in which man is superior to woman (Dolan 84).They believe that most male playwrights write about the male experience from a male perspective, even if writing female characters, and that the male experience is directly linked to patriarchal society. According to Jill Dolan: 19 By rejecting both realism and the genderized posturings of the of the maledominated experimental theater groups, the new feminist theater meant to create woman identified production s. This work, created by women for women, focused on woman’s experience with one another and their connections to each other through gender and sex.Identifying with each other as women was meant as an antidote to their oppression under patriarchy (85). Radical feminists believe that realism is inherently patriarchal, so they want to create a new form of realism for the female spectator so she â€Å"can find a coherent identity in the mirror image they hold up† (Dolan 99). It was the continual oppression of the feminine gender that most radical feminists wanted to examine. One of the most significant oppressions that women felt was that of sexual oppression from a maleoriented society.For centuries, â€Å"male culture made women’s bodies into objects of male desire, converting them into sites of beauty and sexuality for men to gaze upon† (Case 66). Many women as a result were afraid to discuss intimate details about their biology or their sex lives and des ires. Radical feminists wanted to challenge social norms and allow for women’s issues to rise to the surface, to reclaim women’s place in history. They wanted to portray women’s collective struggles against the â€Å"patriarchal backdrop on which women have been victimized,† to highlight the centuries of male dominance in the theater (Dolan 88).In radical feminist theater, Brechtian and Artaudian techniques were often utilized. The Verfremdungseffekt, otherwise known as the distancing effect, is a technique Bertolt Brecht used in his epic theater to ensure that the audience would not become emotionally attached to the characters and could serve as an external political observer. In contrast, Antonin Artaud believed that the theater should contain an aspect of cruelty. He did not intend cruelty to mean causing physical pain for an actor 20 r audience, but cruelty in the way of making violent or disturbing actions on stage so the audience member is forced t o deal with uncomfortable topics. Brechtian techniques are used in feminist theater to alienate the audience and Artaudian to make them feel uncomfortable as they are faced with the breaking of cultural norms. Radical feminist performances, however, differ from those traditions in that radical feminist performances generally consist of a ritualistic element, which created the illusion of timelessness. This differs from Brecht’s usual usage of historical events to urround his plotlines. These performances also highlighted the biology of women and the power they held as a result, whereas Brecht largely concentrated on the politics and Artaud on the cruel intentions. While this was the intention, often â€Å"the body is curiously lost in [performance], perhaps because truly considering the body in space means dealing with the representational apparatus, which the feminine aesthetic is inadequate to handle† (Dolan 97). This struggle between rejecting and embracing realism is used as a means to advance feminist ideologies through performance.Dolan and Case discuss one other type of feminist performance: that of the materialist feminist. The major idea materialist feminism expounds is that all oppression comes from societal construction, and that capitalism is the major determinant in this construction. This can be seen through a historical labor production as Dolan explains: Production is the central human action played out in the market place and, for women, in the domestic sphere. The organisation of the forces of production and the role of wages create the situation of the worker.In the market place, the woman worker has generally been paid lower wages than the man and retained in a subordinate position without upward mobility. In the domestic sphere, unpaid housework and unpaid 21 reproductive and child-rearing labour have been instrumental in shaping the condition of women. The nuclear family is perceived as a unit of private property, in which t he wife-mother is exploited by the male as well as by the larger organisation of capitalism (Dolan 83). Therefore, the materialist feminists believe that there should not be a distinction between genders, but that all genders should be treated with equal weight.Instead of viewing women as a gender, they are treated as a class, much like middle class, upper class, or working class. In short, the woman lives in a system that provides free labor to her husband or her employer. She provides free labor for her husband â€Å"by producing future workers as babies and by preparing the labourer for each day’s work† (Case 84). As a result, this form of feminism has been most prominent in European countries, as the class structure is more defined in those countries than in North America.The only way that a woman can liberate herself from this structure, according to this form of feminism, is to enter the workforce. According to Simone de Beauvoir1 in her revolutionary text The Se cond Sex (1949), when a woman receives employment she is liberated from her husband and can be her own member of the social structure. She then â€Å"ceases to be a parasite [and] the system based on her dependence crumbles; between her and the universe there is no longer any need for a masculine mediator† (Beauvoir 679).In patriarchal society, men have the liberty of having their occupation not determined by their gender. Women who try to deviate from this norm are subject to oppression, as â€Å"the woman who does not conform devaluates herself sexually and hence socially, since sexual values are an integral feature of [a patriarchal] society† (Beauvoir 682). Materialist feminists believe that by changing the economic structure, 22 the social structure will soon follow. If women are given equal opportunities in the workplace and are treated as men, they will not be sexualized and demoralized as before.Therefore, in performance, materialist feminists do not see it nec essary to portray women as accurately as they would in life, because that is not the aim. The aim is to see women as a class, not as a performer of gender. Materialist feminists believed that the theater could be used to advance their gender in society, but they felt that the radical feminists were slightly misguided. They felt that if women were still working under the constraints of a male society, they were weakening women until she could only exist as a representation on stage.Therefore, the materialist feminists wanted to discover â€Å"how to inscribe a representational space for women that will point out the gender enculturation promoted through the representational frame and that will belie the oppressions of the dominant ideology it perpetuates† (Dolan 101). The materialist feminists deviated from the idea that â€Å"patriarchy is everywhere and always the same and that all women are ‘sisters’† and instead used their theater to underscore â€Å"t he role of class and history in creating the oppression of women† (Case 82).The most successful way to make their points, they believe, is by highlighting the arbitrary nature of gender and its performance in society, and to assert that all real differences between individuals are the results of class inequalities, which in turn manifest in gender inequality. They wish â€Å"to reveal the complicity of the representational apparatus in maintaining sexual difference,† and prove that it is not as important to maintain these differences on stage as it had been in works of realism (Dolan 101). 23It is through the performance ideologies of radical and materialist feminism that most feminist theater of the late twentieth century can be categorized. Also, many subsequent forms of feminist theater have been widely influenced by these theories, either directly or because the performers choose explicitly to deviate from the feminist theater norm in order to make their own points on gender in society. However, even today, much of feminist theater employs techniques of distancing, alienation, highlighting differences between sexes.They are less concerned with making sure gender is represented accurately on stage in accord with realism, or talking about issues that are traditionally considered feminine, such as women’s sexuality, body, and life experiences due to gender. Beckett and Gender (Happy Days) Beckett is often criticized as being sexist. This claim comes mainly from the way the Beckett Estate, which is in control of all of Beckett’s works, deals with gender when giving out performance rights to companies. Beckett has made it very clear that only men are allowed to perform the roles for men, and women are allowed to perform the roles for women.His estate has filed a number of lawsuits on companies trying to change the gender roles in his works and has been successful in most instances (Jeffreys). Though some have gotten angry at the iron grip that the Beckett Estate seems to have on Beckett’s works, there is a logic to the demand that each gender represented in a play must be played by an actor of that gender. Beckett intentionally wrote a part for a man so a man could play it, in the same way that he wrote a part for a woman to play. He wrote very clear male and female voices. The female voice 24 specially that of Winnie, is inherently unique. She does not speak about herself or her troubles in the way that Vladimir and Estragon do in Godot. She does not speak about prostates or having an erection, she speaks about lipstick and quotes Shakespeare. Therefore, it is imperative to explore gender and choice of language in Beckett’s works, because he was so deliberate with gender in his productions. In many ways, Beckett has represented his women stereotypically. Throughout his writing career, however, Beckett began to challenge his original notions and began to portray women more diversely.At the beginnin g of his career, when he was focusing on prose, most of Beckett’s women were overbearing and clearly antagonistic to men. For example, in his first novel Murphy, the main female character, Celia, is a prostitute that Murphy lives with. Celia makes many demands of Murphy, and is portrayed as an overbearing woman throughout. On the other hand, Beckett did move away from some established theatrical gender roles. In traditional gender roles, young women were often sexualized and are portrayed as â€Å"beautiful, chaste, and usually static† (Bryden 18).Some say that Beckett does not conform to this gender stereotype because most of his women are loud, overbearing, in grotesque circumstances, and older. For example, in Happy Days, Winnie is continually overbearing toward Willie, especially when giving him specific directions on how she wants things done. He cannot even go where he wants without Winnie screeching, â€Å"Do as I say, Willie, don’t lie sprawling there i n this hellish sun, go back into your hole† (Beckett 25). Winnie has lost much of her vitality, and in a way is so far removed from it she is no longer bound to the stereotypes of youth.Instead, Winnie is 25 confined to stereotypes of age, as many older women are portrayed as meddling, controlling, and loving, just as Winnie is. Another gender stereotype would be the care that Winnie takes in preserving her appearance. Throughout the beginning of the play, Winnie is focused on making sure she keeps up her physical appearance. The act of obsessive grooming and the placement of value in physical appearance tend to be regarded as feminine traits. At the beginning of the play Winnie is following her morning routine. She brushes her teeth, checks herself in the mirror, and begins to apply lipstick.She is also concerned about the appearance of her hair. Winnie is in the middle of a thought when she anxiously cries out, â€Å"My hair! Did I brush and comb my hair? I may have done, n ormally do† (Beckett 22). In a number of productions of Happy Days, the design takes into account the idea that in Act II Winnie is unable to move her arms any longer. Therefore she is unable to tend to her personal appearance. In the 2007 production of Happy Days at the Royal National Theatre in London starring Fiona Shaw, the actress had blackened teeth, mussed hair, and a dirtied face at the onset of Act II.This showed that Winnie was unable to take care of herself, and this choice is even supported in the text when Winnie mentions, â€Å"Willie, look at me. Feast your old eyes, Willie. Does anything remain? Any remains? No? I haven’t been able to look after it, you know† (Beckett 62). Willie, as a man, does not tend to his appearance in the same vein at all, and to that effect does not help Winnie keep up her looks when she is no longer able. Winnie must give him orders on how to take care of his 26 appearance.Therefore, Beckett places the female in the stere otypical role of taking care of her appearance, while the male is placed in the role where he does not. Winnie is also obsessed with her declining looks. It is clear that she spends much of her time trying to impress Willie and feels that because she has lost her looks, she has lost what makes her desirable to men. She states, â€Å"Was I lovable once, Willie? Was I ever lovable? Do not misunderstand my question, I am not asking you if you loved me, we all know about that, I am asking if you found me loveable at one stage† (Beckett 31).Winnie believes that her lovability is directly attached to the past, and therefore her youth. It is generally considered typical of women, rather than men, to be obsessed with their own youth and beauty. Women are typically cast off as undesirable when they reach a certain age, whereas men have a much longer time frame before society deems them too old to be physically attractive. Winnie also remembers her beauty from before she was in the mou nd, stating: and now? The face. The nose. I can see it†¦ the tip†¦the nostrils†¦breath of life†¦ that curve you so admired†¦ if I stick it out†¦the tip†¦suspicion of brow†¦eyebrow†¦imagination possibly†¦.Cheek†¦no†¦no†¦ even if I puff them out†¦ no†¦no†¦damask. (Beckett 52) She truly believes that her looks are the only reason that Willie could have ever loved her, and now that they are gone, she has no means of attraction. It is stereotypically characteristic of a woman to have these thoughts, and the preoccupation fits the gender stereotype. Winnie is also a stereotypical woman in the way she remembers her past lovers. For example, she is very sentimental about the memories of her first ball and her first kiss. It was with â€Å"a Mr.Johnson, or Johnston, or perhaps I should say 27 Johnstone. Very bushy moustache, very tawny. Almost ginger! Within a toolshed, though whose I cannot conceive† (Bec kett 16). According to most gender stereotypes, it is typical of women to be obsessive over past relationships. Winnie’s memory is no exception. She also remembers another lover before Willie named Charlie. It is a fleeting memory, where she contemplates the situation, stating, â€Å"Ah yes†¦ then†¦now†¦beechen green†¦this†¦Charlie†¦ kisses†¦this†¦all that†¦ deep trouble for the mind† (Beckett 51).Clearly, Winnie is saddened in her memories but clings to them because she has little left that she can value as a result of her situation in the mound. Holding onto her past lovers represents Winnie’s desire to hold onto her rites of passage, including her first sexual experiences. Beckett explores a number of other stereotypes, including the purse Winnie carries. A purse is traditionally considered a feminine object to carry and generally is filled with trinkets that women are prone to using or carrying around.For example, the bag that Winnie uses is filled with such objects as a compact mirror, a handkerchief, a bottle of medicine, lipstick, a brush and comb, and a nail file. Although it can be argued that Winnie is bound to her purse because of her lack of mobility and things to occupy her time, it can also be seen as a comment on the female gender and their stereotypical dependence on the purse or bag that they carry. Winnie has great faith in her bag, and is protective of and dependent on it, stating: There is of course the bag. The bag. Could I enumerate its contents? No.Could I, if some kind person were to come along and ask, What all have you got in that big black bag, Winnie? Give an exhaustive answer? No. The depths in particular, who knows what treasures. What comforts. (Beckett 32) 28 Winnie is so attached to her bag she believes that the objects themselves carry not only meaning, but life. In the second act Winnie contemplates, â€Å"It’s things, Willie. In the bag, outside the ba g. Ah yes, things have their life, that is what I always say, things have a life† (Beckett 54). This materialistic view has been attributed to women in many instances.Someone who marries a person for their money or resources is more likely to be a woman than a man (even though it is a stereotype for both genders), as women are seen as a lower class, and to escape their place in the class structure they marry into their wealth as they are not as privileged to earn it themselves. There is, however, one stereotypically masculine object in the bag: the revolver. In many cases, the revolver is a symbol of power and dominance over others. In the past, men typically carried firearms on their person and were given guns to use in war, an arena that has only recently been occupied in a standard capacity by women.The shape of the gun itself can also be considered phallic. The gun, considered as a phallic object, can also be seen as a castration of Willie. Winnie has essential ownership o ver his manhood. This can be supported by one of Willie’s few lines, in which Winnie asks him what a â€Å"hog’s setae† is, to which he replies, â€Å"Castrated male swine. Reared for slaughter† (Beckett 47). Willie clearly sees himself as someone who is no longer in control of his masculinity and has fallen so far that his status is reduced to that of a pig. He is also so far gone that he is ready to be killed. He is on his deathbed, waiting to go to the slaughterhouse.This viewpoint is very alarming, and does shed a slightly negative light on women. Winnie, in many ways, 29 can be seen as a monster for having power over the gun and therefore Willie’s masculinity. It is again remarkable to note that Winnie, not Willie, is the owner of the gun as it suggests that Winnie is in possession of the masculine object, and thereby the power. It is in her bag, and though she seems repulsed by the idea of a gun, she is also somewhat fascinated and consoled b y its presence. When considering the gun, Winnie states, â€Å"oh I suppose it’s a comfort to know you’re there, but I’m tired of you.I’ll leave you out, that’s what I’ll do. There, that is your home from this day out† (Beckett 33). It is also unclear whether or not Willie is attempting to reclaim the gun from Winnie or not. At the play’s end, when Willie comes out â€Å"dressed to kill† and comes to Winnie on the mound where the gun is resting near her, Beckett makes sure that Willie’s last lunge towards the mound is ambiguous (Beckett 61). One is unsure whether or not he is trying to reach for Winnie, or for her gun. Regardless of his motive, one thing is certain: he does not attain the gun; it remains in Winnie’s possession.It is fair to assume that if the play’s narrative would have continued, Willie would never have gotten the gun from Winnie. Therefore, though Winnie is considered stereotypical with the use of her purse to carry trinkets and her attachment to her purse, she also is the wielder of a surprisingly masculine object, and the male character is unable to have it for himself. Another notable point is that commonly arises in Beckett plays is the lack of mobility women usually have, which suggests that women have little room for advancement in this world.Scholar Mary Bryden points out that â€Å"in these plays, stasis 30 has more in common with aspiration than with condemnation,† meaning that those who are not moving have aspirations that are static, not that they themselves are condemned to some sort of hell (90). Nell in Endgame lives in a trash can. The women in Play (1963) are trapped in urns. While this lack of mobility can be seen in male characters as well (Nagg in Endgame, the male in Play), the effect is different. Other men are given mobility in Beckett’s works, when women are less likely to be given movement.Hamm is able to move, as is Krap p, Vladimir, Estragon, Lucky, Pozzo, and most notably Willie. Willie is given the option of mobility, whereas Winnie is not. Winnie is actually happy with her lack of movement, stating, â€Å"What a curse, mobility! † (Beckett 46). She is aware that at one time she used to be mobile, but blissfully unaware at how much easier her life was when she was mobile. She was able to hold a parasol above her head with ease instead of with pain and discomfort. She was not the object of spectacle when others passed by. She was independent in many ways because she was not bound to the earth.She even dreams of leaving her situation, and dreams that â€Å"if I were not held–in this way–I would simply float up into the blue. And that perhaps someday the earth will yield and let me go, the pull is so great, yes, crack all round and let me out† (Beckett 33). Winnie recalls these things many times and acknowledges that mobility would be best for her. But she remains complac ent about her situation and still finds happiness in her utterly dependent state with Willie, because her aspirations cause her to stay immobile. Her mobility is in direct relation to her ambitions.Since her dreams are not going anywhere, neither is Winnie. 31 In other ways Beckett does break standard gender stereotypes when portraying his women. In a patriarchal society the wife is supposed to be the servant to the husband. While Winnie is holding up her parasol and her arm tires, she asks his permission to put it down, stating, â€Å"bid me to put this thing down, Willie, I will obey you instantly, as I have always done, honoured, and obeyed† (Beckett 36). It seems that Winnie is a woman who is completely dependent on her husband, and in many ways she is because of her situation in the mound.However, Willie is the one who serves Winnie. Willie is the one who brings her items when she demands them, answers to her voice when she calls out to him, and essentially does whatever she demands. Winnie, in effect, has not taken the role of the stereotypical married woman. She mentions that she serves her husband and is bound to do so. Therefore she does not leave because of her duty and her vow of marriage and her situation in the hill. Willie, in the same vein, is not trapped in the hill as Winnie is. He is able to leave the harsh environment whenever he would like and essentially let fate take Winnie.He doesn’t leave, however. He takes the abusive phrases from his wife and he stays with her until presumably the end of her days. In much the same way, sex in Beckett plays is just as forgotten and elusive to men as it is to women. Characters in Beckett plays remember that sex, at one time, existed. But now it is so far in the past that it is almost forgotten. Winnie’s only memories of sex seem to be poor, as she states â€Å"sadness after intimate sexual intercourse one is familiar with of course. You would concur with Aristotle there, Willie, I fancy† (Beckett 57).Ironically, the Aristotle quotation actually refers to men, 32 stating â€Å"the exhaustion consequent on the loss of even a very little of the semen is conspicuous because the body is deprived of the ultimate gain drawn from the nutriment †¦ [so] as a general rule the result of intercourse is exhaustion and weakness rather than relief† (Alexander). It is extremely interesting that Winnie, as a woman, references such a masculine viewpoint on sexuality. However, she does seem to agree with this overtly masculine philosophy. Through her condition in the hill, Winnie’s sexuality is gradually covered up.Cooker, or Shower, as Winnie is hard at remembering, has made numerous comments about her sexuality in regards to the mound. Cooker and/or Shower is a man and his wife, that occasionally pass Winnie and Willie, and make rude comments about the state that Winnie finds herself in. Beckett was well versed in German, and used these English names a s a play on words. In German, the word â€Å"schauen† means to look, and â€Å"gucken† to watch: naming his onlookers Shower and Cooker was highly suggestive. The mysterious onlooker is curious as to whether her body is still good looking, stating, â€Å"can’t have been a bad bosom†¦in its day.Seen worse shoulders†¦in my time. Does she feel her legs? . . . has she anything on underneath? † (Beckett 58). She is infuriated by the comments, yelling, â€Å"let go of me for Christ sake and drop! Drop dead! † (Beckett 58). But her condition in the mound makes it impossible to defend herself. While man and woman are both foreign to sex, it is the woman who is trapped and made a fool of, and has no way to defend herself because of the condition the playwright has placed her in. Dolan makes a point to discuss this in her work, commenting on the role that sexuality plays in performance.She believes that â€Å"if power adheres in sexuality, and cul tural feminists 33 assume power leads to violence against women, it becomes politically and artistically necessary to attempt to disengage representation from desire,† meaning that in feminist theater practices, women have to be presented as women, not the object of male sexual desire (Dolan 61). In Beckett’s production, Winnie is literally trapped and gaped at, proving Dolan’s point that in most of the modern canon, the representation of woman on stage is synonymous with desire.One of the scenes in Happy Days that concentrates most on sex is that in which Winnie discusses Mildred, commonly referenced as Milly, and the mouse. The story is quite frightening and underlines the idea that sex for women and for Winnie in particular has been terrifying and un-gratifying. In the second act, Winnie describes Mildred, a little girl who could have been Winnie as a young woman. She has been given a wax doll named Dolly. Milly sneaks out of her room to the nursery to undress Dolly, as she seemingly has been â€Å"forbidden to do so,† then suddenly out of nowhere a mouse appears and crawls up Milly’s leg (Beckett 55).She screams, and the entire household comes running to see what the matter is. It is at that moment that Winnie stops her story, and is too overcome to finish. It is clear from the language, that the story is one of Milly’s, or perhaps Winnie’s, first memories of sexuality and perhaps her own sexuality. Clearly the experience frightened her in regard to her sexual nature, because she abruptly stops her story by warning Willie that he â€Å"may close [his] eyes, then [he] must close [his] eyes- and keep them closed† (Beckett 59).While Winnie’s sexuality has shifted and her sex drive has been affected by her entrapment in the 34 mound, it is clear that even from a young age she was not accepting of her sexuality, or able to properly deal with it because she felt violated. Throughout Beckett’s w ork, gender stereotypes are present. However, these stereotypes are accompanied by a number of gender deviations from the stereotypical norm. Therefore, when considering the work of Beckett, it is valid to assert that although Beckett conforms to gender stereotyping, he is not bound by them.Even though his work is informed by a world on the verge of the second-wave feminist movement, he is beginning to break gender stereotypes that are inherent in his earlier works of prose and even drama. Therefore, Happy Days is an appropriate and interesting play to look at from an absurdist feminist perspective. Happy Days in Performance: A Feminist Perspective (Process) When mounting a production there are a number of individuals involved, and they all have a certain role to play.Actors, directors, producers, and the production design team all work together to create a final performance. In the fall, I spent most of my time researching the production and writing the preliminary part of my thesi s. In the production, I held two roles: that of producer and lead actress. As a producer, it was my responsibility to be in charge of the logistical elements of the production. I was responsible for coordinating the space rental, finding rehearsal spaces, making the program and fliers, and essentially all of the production aspects of the performance.Some of my duties I gave to my director and stage manager to handle, which in a typical performance would not happen; however, since I was also taking on the role as the lead actress, I had to divide my time. In that role I was expected to memorize all of 35 my lines, have character ideas, personalize emotional responses and relationships, and have a set of actions to achieve my objectives. This role proved to be the most time consuming, as the Beckett script was repetitive and convoluted, making it difficult to memorize.Winnie is essentially the only character who speaks (meaning there are no other actors to rely on for help with lines and following the through line of the script, or the journey of the character throughout the play), and the nature of absurdist work makes it difficult to discover objectives and relationships. One of my first duties as producer was to assemble a production team. First, I chose a performance faculty advisor. I asked Professor Shelley Delaney because of her work with one-woman performances and her knowledge of the craft of acting.After making this choice, I was informed that Professor Delaney would not be able to help direct me in the production. I knew that as an actor I would not be able to assess my progress without the help of a director. Therefore, I asked Arielle Giselle Rogers to direct me. She graduated from Ohio University’s School of Theater with a BFA in Acting in 2011, and she is very experienced in directing and performing in onewoman shows, especially feminist works (she is the founding member of F-Word, a feminist theater performance group on Ohio Universityâ₠¬â„¢s campus).I also needed a stage manager; someone to handle the day to day operations of rehearsal. For that I choose Jacob St. Aubin, a junior BFA stage management major because he is an impeccable organizer and very talented. I then needed a set designer to help with the construction of the hill that Winnie is buried in. I chose Ryan Myers, a senior BFA production design and technology major who specializes in set design, based on his 36 previous design and portfolio work.For costumes I turned to Megan Knowles, a senior BFA production design and technology major who specializes in costumes, because I had worked with her before and she has a very impressive portfolio. For the sound design I asked Aaron Butler, a graduate student in the School of Music, because of his work in other School of Theater productions in which he utilized minimalist soundscapes and experimental music. For the lighting design I asked Keri Donovan, a BFA production design and technology major who speciali zes in lighting design to create the effect of the fire and generally light the show.Finally, I solicited help from one other faculty member, Laura Parrotti, who was my vocal coach throughout the process. Professor Parrotti has been a vocal coach on a number of professional productions, as well as the main voice coach for the School of Theater students. Her advice on how to handle the Beckett text from a vocal standpoint was instrumental to the process. Rehearsals for Happy Days began January 9, 2012. The cast consisted of me (Rachel Collins) as Winnie and Sean O’Brien as Willie.Rehearsals were coordinated through a joint effort between Jacob and me, but he facilitated the rehearsal reports, space rental, and coordination of meetings with the production team. The first week of rehearsals consisted of table work, which was run by Arielle. Table work is generally the term used for the first week of rehearsal, in which the actors go through the script beat by beat and look at th e academic and theoretical aspects behind the script that would inform the performance. Sean and I read through the script while Arielle gave notes. Then the three of us would discuss the scholarly background of the play, 7 characters, motivation, and my take on the thesis, etc. , with the group and began to come up with character ideas and how to shape the piece. The main aspect we discussed through these workings was the idea that Winnie is a woman who i

Urban Health Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Urban Health - Essay Example It is tabulated that about two-thirds of Europeans lives in towns and cities (WHO, 2010, p. 1). It is estimated that, by 2050, 70% of the people will migrate and live in cities. Urban health is known to depend on factors such as governance, characteristics of the population, food security, social and economic developments (Which, 2010, p. 2). This paper deals with TB as an urban health hazard in Newham, London boroughs. We will discuss how determinants of health contribute to TB infection. Moreover, the infection and transmission mechanisms of the diseases will be discussed under various sections of urban life. Finally, strategies and recommendations in control of the disease will be highlighted. According to Centre for Disease Control, TB is an airborne disease that is caused by bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis (CDC, 2013, p. 2). The disease was declared a global disaster in 1993 with a campaign plan against it being scheduled in 2006 to save about 14 million victims by the year 2015 (WHO. 2011, p. 23).The pathogen specifically attacks the lungs, but other parts such as spine, kidney and brain are attacked. Extra pulmonary TB occurs outside the lungs. On the other hand, pulmonary TB occurs in the lung. However, the two types can co-exist. Improper treatment of the disease is fatal and may lead to death. Its spread through the air makes it transmittable through coughs, sneeze and other respiratory droplets. It is recorded that in every ten case of TB, half the number that is left untreated leads to 50% deaths (WHO, 2011, p. 3). A third of the whole world’s population is assumed to be affected by M. tuberculosis. Approximations of 1% of new infections are known to occur each year (WHO, 2002, p. 4). In 2007, 13.7million cases of active chronic infections were reported globally. However, in 2010, the number reduced to 8.8 million cases with an approximation of about 1.5 million global deaths. Most of the cases

The Human Resources Implications of Greater Ethnic Diversification Essay

The Human Resources Implications of Greater Ethnic Diversification - Essay Example These policies have combined with demographic shifts to leave more and more companies with the most diverse workforce, both in terms of gender and ethnicity, than they have ever had before. Despite this, the human resources implications of greater ethnic diversity have far from ended, rather, they are getting exceedingly more complex. The fact is that, while hiring initiatives have led to greater diversity in the work force, this has led to a whole swath of other implications for human resources professionals. Furthermore, the process through which much of the diversity has been achieved, such as affirmative action hiring, have failed to have either positive business or social justice outcomes. Growing diversity has requires human resources professionals to innovate new methods of team formation and culture shifts in companies, which seem to be the only way to make the gains made by having an ethnically diverse workforce sustainable. The gains of having an ethnically diverse workforc e have been well understood for some time now. ... thnically diverse backgrounds provide insight into their own positions as well as for their coworkers (Jackson et al 1992), while corporations that have a great deal of ethnic diversity on amongst their board of directors tend to perform better in a wide variety of metrics, including profitability and revenue stream (Singh 2007). Furthermore, companies that seek to go beyond simply generating ethnic diversity through hiring practices, but also entrenching cultural values that promote and respect diverse modes of thought have a whole slew of other benefits. Their workforces tend to have more a more collective orientation, more open modes of communication, and are better able to recognize talent from individuals of diverse backgrounds (Martin-Alcaraz 2011). While some indicators of the gains of diverse companies may seem coincidental (and there is a chance, especially with instances with small population studies, such as boards of directors), it does seem that a great deal of ethnic di versity has direct positive impacts for companies that foster such an atmosphere. The goals of diversity initiatives are also obviously not founded solely on improving performance, though this does seem to be an effect of a positively constructed diversity program. Diversity is also important for companies to meet social and ethical requirements and behave as good â€Å"corporate citizens.† The fact is, that with the growing ethnic diversity that has come with globalization, a work force that is not diverse represents a form of oppression rather than a lack of outreach or other such measures. A workforce should resemble the population that surrounds it, and if it has a significant difference, then the company needs to ask itself how and why it is actively excluding portions of the

Carrico Ending 42 Years On High Court Research Paper

Carrico Ending 42 Years On High Court - Research Paper Example Appointed judiciary members, unlike elected ones, are likely to be impartial. Effective judiciary systems are those that consist of appointed judges because they do not have to seek popularity among the masses, unlike the elected judges do. Mandatory retirement provisions ensure that the judiciary remains effective in delivering quality public service. They establish racial and gender equality among male and female, white and non-white judges. These provisions allow for continuity in the judiciary with the incorporation of fresh talent from young judges. Carrico Ending 42 Years on High Court Ethical advantages and disadvantages of an appointed vs. an elected judiciary There is a current tag of forces in various American states as they consider switching from appointing their members of judiciary to electing them. One of these States is Tennessee, where the judicial bench has always been appointed since the 1970s, but the system is being flawed by conservative legislators whose opinio n is that appointed judges are unaccountable to the electorate. Accountability is thus one of the greatest advantages of an elected judiciary as opposed to an appointed one. ... Besides, majority of the public is disinterested in judicial elections and would not give them the attention given to presidential elections, for example. This means that the current judges who would be most profound would be easily believed by the public leading to voting back incumbent judges regardless of their suitability for the positions. On the other hand, appointed judges are in a better position to do their work in a non-partisan manner, without their rulings being influenced by the opinions of their electorate. Electing members of the judiciary thus has a disadvantage of influencing elected judges to rule in favor of popular opinion (Packer, 2007). Putting judges in a position to seek votes from the public also means that they have to seek funds to drive their campaigns. Those who grant them funds would often have vested interests in the judges perhaps to influence the outcome of certain cases, which creates a opportunity for corruption in the electoral system of the judici ary. Appointing judges for lengthy periods of time or for a lifetime has also been a successful way of running the judicial system as in the case of retiring Chief Justice Carrico, who has served at the high court for 42 years without compromising his standards of service. When members of the judiciary are appointed for lengthy periods, they are not put in any compromising situation to woo the public and other supporters for anything. This ensures that they carry on their duties with diligence without compromising their duties and positions. This has been successful with Carrico and it can be with other judges as well, as long as periodic performance reviews are carried out to determine whether they remain on the bench or not. Ethical advantages of

Courage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Courage - Essay Example The average person derives an image of a superhero when thinking about courage. However, that a limited view of what courage means. This is because it can be applied to so many other aspects of life. The second half of the definition in regards to negative forces is what allows for individual perspective on the word. For example, courage can pertain to a person stopping a gunman from shooting another victim despite the immense danger he or she faces in possibly getting maimed or dying in the process. On the other hand, courage can be reflected in the depths of an individual who recently became crippled and has to face the pain, difficulty and fear of starting life in a new way with new challenges. Both situations involve a form of evil to some extent and to be courageous is appropriately applied to the people involved. The situation also does not have to be a severe one that radically changes peoples’ lives. There is no indication in the definition of courage that there has to be a big or massive negative situation that happens to someone for it to maintain its context. Courage can be applied to as little a situation as giving a successful speech in front of a classroom of students or having the courage to try something new whether it is a type of food or a physical activity. The definition is also not limited to who can have courage. The definition does not state that a particular kind of person can achieve this mental state. This is where it gets tricky. The definition does not say who can have courage, but does that mean an animal can? Can a dog have courage? Most would agree that animals or people who do not have a clear understanding of the term courage cannot be courageous. However, if you go by the actual definition, it fails to decipher whether having courage is a human attribute or not. The fact is that that courage is a feat attributed to a mental or emotionally state of mind. Courage is then taken on and assigned to an individual based on his or her performance during a physical or outward activity that is negative in some fashion. A person cannot have courage in face of something that is not difficult or terrifying on some level. Works Cited "courage." Merriam-Webster. 2011. Web. 2 Nov. 2011. . â€Å"fear.† Merriam-Webster. 2011. Web. 2 Nov. 2011 http://www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/fear. â€Å"difficulty.† Merriam-Webster

Cash Flows Yahoo and Google Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cash Flows Yahoo and Google - Essay Example Over the period of three years, Google has contributed to the capital expenditure for future expansion Besides Google seems to be active in managing its short term investment and generate significant cash flows. The most significant indicators of the sources of financing activities being generated are the issuance of capital stock by the Google over the period of time. Apart from that Google has been relying on external financing to generate its cash flows from investing activities. On the whole it can be safely assumed that Google has been able to generate very healthy operating cash flows which is in fact one of the ideal indicators for the investors as for as the cash flow generating capability of the company is concerned in long term basis. The major contributor towards generating positive operating cash flows are non-cash items specially depreciation and amortization. Cash flow from Operations has shown reduction in 2006 due to the reduction in net income. Cash Flow from investing activities is negative too because of the heavy capital expenditure being made over the period of three years. Cash Flows from financing have been negative too because of the fact that Yahoo has recalled some of its stocks from the market i.e. repurchased its stock from the open market to lessen the external

Fair Payment System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Fair Payment System - Essay Example A rapidly growing body of literature and research indicates that flexibility and equity have now come to occupy a vital place in remuneration schemes and the inability of strike a balance might results in breach of psychological contract. This brings us to some relevant concepts in the discussion of fair pay system today. First we need to understand that when an employee starts working for an organization, it establishes a relationship between the employer and the employee. We call these exchange relationships since employee promises to offer something for the payment he hopes to receive. His services include loyalty, dedication, commitment and good performance. In return he hopes to be paid in a way that would match his talents and his input. One very important concept in this regard is that of equity theory that helps us to see why we need flexibility and fairness while creating a remuneration strategy. Equity theory studies the psychological acknowledgment of being treated equally. This is a very relevant concept and one that is being used increasing in developing fair pay system. Equity theory states that employees must feel that they are being treated fairly when they compare their pay with those of their counterparts at the same position. This is where inputs and rewards are closely studied. Employees would want to make sure that their input, if it is equal, must follow equal rewards. Adams (1965) explained that equity theory studies the ingrained mental process that allows a person to see how are efforts being rewarded and whether or not same efforts are being rewarded with similar returns. Equity theory further states that if people experience inequity, they will change their behavior in order to attain the feelin g of equity or remove the tension that arises from the feeling of inequity. If they feel that their ratios are lower when compared to those of their colleagues in the same position, they will start behaving in a negative fashion to bring their ratios at par with their efforts. Some will start coming late to work, or decrease their inputs or not meet deadlines etc. Psychological contract is another important concept which has been helpful in developing fair pay systems. Argyris (1960) who coined this term describes it as a 'set of practical and emotional expectations of benefits that employees and employers can reasonably have of each other.' Since that time, the term has been defined and redefined a number of times with Rousseau's definition becoming most influential: 'An individual's belief regarding the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement between the focal person and another party A psychological contract emerges when one party believes that a promise of future returns has been made, a contribution has been given and thus, an obligation has been created to provide future benefits'. (Rousseau 1989) Pay is generally the most important part of the contents of a psychological contract. In a UK study conducted by Herriot et al. (1996), it was found that employees used fairness and pay most frequently when work environment was discussed. It was the two things that topped the list of things that employees paid attention to when discussion of work environment came up. Pay for performance is the third most commonly discussed concept in development of fair pay system. Recent developments in the field of management and performance-based evaluation systems provide conclusive evidence of the fact that the understanding of

Examine the extent to which success in attracting tourists to a Essay

Examine the extent to which success in attracting tourists to a destination is less the product of public sector development str - Essay Example Tourism organizations’ managers in private and public organizations need to be well informed strong understanding and command of consumer behaviour as the growth of this industry highly depends on consumer behaviour. In addition to this, commercial interest also needs to be considered in order to develop tourism strategies. What public sector development strategies are typically used to encourage tourism? The public sector organizations introduce several development strategies in order to encourage the tourism. First of all, the public sector organizations generally formalize the tourism industry engagement programs and activities. In these programmes, the organizations invite the board and industry members to discuss over the strategy development process. Globalization and technological revolution is motivating the public sector organizations to target potential customers through online marketing and promotional strategies (Hall and Page, 2006, pp.96-117). Each and every publ ic sector organization is developing attracting website that can provide entire information about the destinations, events and package price to the target customers. In addition to this, sustainable and green strategy development process is helping these organizations to attain sustainable industry growth (Elliot, 1997, pp.31-37). Several unique customer awareness and brand promotional strategies have been adopted by the organizations to develop potential client base. However, the public sector organizations mainly focus on the sustainable practices and operational strategies. What public sector development strategies have been successful/ effective? Why? Promotion and marketing activities through online media networks have been successful. In addition to this, sustainable planning and strategy development process is motivating more number of customers (Hall and Jenkins, 1995, p.19-31). Major limitation is the lack of commercial interest in the developed strategies. In addition to t his, limited stakeholder engagement activity during strategy development process can make it difficult for the organizations to meet corporate objectives and business goals. What are the limitations? Golf tourism can be considered under sports tourism sector. Golf is considered as one of the most attractive and significant sport tourism activity that can contribute effectively to the economic and social welfare of the destination. This sport is becoming popular among the people of several developed and developing countries around the globe (Priestley, 2006, pp.170-178). Looking into these favourable aspects and environment, public sector and private sector organizations are collaboratively developing strategies in order to maximize profitability (Jeffries, 2001, pp.19-27). The collaboration of private and public sector organization is highly required in the strategy development process. Generally, public sector organizations motivate the private organizations to follow the legal pol icies in business policies On the other hand, private sector organizations focus on particular commercial interests and consumer behaviour. It is important to develop customer oriented business strategies in golf tourism. The number of golf lovers is increasing significantly around the globe. The public organizations generally take care of the policy development proc

United States v Nixo Essay Example for Free

United States v Nixo Essay A grand jury returned indictments against seven of President Nixon’s White House staff members and political supporters of the President for violation of federal statutes in the Watergate affair,. The President on the other hand was named as an un-indicted co-conspirator. The Special Prosecutor Leon Jaworski filed a motion under Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure Rule 17 for a subpoena duces tecum, a court summons ordering the President to appear before the court and produce tapes, documents and other tangible evidence relating to precisely identified conversations and meeting between President Nixon and his aides. The District Court initially treated the subpoena material as presumptively privileged, but then concluded that the Special Prosecutor made sufficient showing to justify a subpoena for production before trial. The District Court then issued an order for an in camera examination of the subpoenaed material, rejecting President Nixon’s contentions that the judiciary lacked authority to review his assertion of absolute executive privileged and the dispute between him and the Special Prosecutor was nonjusticiable as an â€Å"intra-executive† conflict. The District Court of the District of Columbia issued an order for in camera assessment of subpoena material consequently rejecting President Nixon’s arguments. President Nixon then sought appellate review in the Court of Appeals. The Special Prosecutor Leon Jaworski subsequently filed a writ of certiorari and President Nixon filed a cross-petition for a writ challenging the grand jury. The U.S Supreme Court granted both petitions. Under the laws of the constitution, can the President of the United States, upon his non-indictment for conspiracy which violates federal law, invoke absolute executive privilege that interferes with a District Court order directing him to produce certain tape recordings and documents relating to his conversations with aides and advisers? 1. Article II Section 2: He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the Supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments 2.Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure Rule 17 (c): A subpoena may order the witness to produce any books, papers, documents, data, or other objects the subpoena designates. The court may direct the witness to produce the designated items in court before trial or before they are to be offered in evidence. When the items arrive, the court may permit the parties and their attorneys to inspect all or part of them. 3.Fifth Amendment: No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. 4.Sixth Amendment: In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defense. The Supreme Court proceeded in determining a resolution to the case by acknowledging and evaluating the presented arguments of both parties. They began with assessing the argument by President Nixon’s counsel that the dispute between the President and the Special Prosecutor Leon Jaworski was an intra-branch dispute between a subordinate and superior officer of the Executive Branch and is not subjected to judicial resolution. Based on that claim, the Supreme Court introduced the regulations of the Authority of Article II, Section 2 and indicated that under those regulations Congress has vested in the Attorney General the power to conduct the criminal litigations of the United States Government. Along with that, the Attorney General also has the power to appoint subordinate officers to assist him in the discharge of his duties. For cases such as this and in conformation of the statutes, the Attorney General delegated authority to Special Prosecutor Leon Jaworski to represent the United States. Based on the governing statutes and the delegation of authority, the Supreme Court agreed that the Special Prosecutor was indeed acting within the scope of his express authority. They also included that the fact that both parties are officers of the Executive Branch could not be viewed as an avoidance of justifiability and would however be inconsistent with applicable laws and regulations. As a result of that, the Supreme Court’s concluded that the Special Prosecutor has standing to bring action and that a justifiable disagreement had been presented for decision. The second argument the Supreme Court reviewed was the way in which the evidence was sought, by determining whether the issuance of the subpoena duces tecum in the federal criminal proceeding was in accordance with the requirements of the Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure -Rule 17 (c). The Supreme Court concluded that the Special Prosecutor satisfied the requirements by ensuring that production of the evidence sought displayed relevancy, admissibility, and specificity to the criminal case. Along with that, the Supreme Court agreed that there was sufficient likelihood that each of the tapes contained conversations relevant to the offenses charged in the indictment. Finally the Supreme Court evaluated the argument by President Nixon’s counsel, of immunization from the subpoena on the basis of absolute executive privilege. The Supreme Court weighed the importance of general privilege of confidentiality of Presidential communication and took into account that the basis for the claim of privilege was not on the grounds of military or diplomatic secrets. In the absence of a claim of military, diplomatic or sensitive national security secrets, the Supreme Court rejected the argument of confidentiality of Presidential communication, stating that the allowance of the privilege to withhold evidence that proves relevant in a criminal trial would cut deeply into the guarantee of due process of the law depicted in the Fifth Amendment. Along with that the Sixth Amendment confers upon every defendant in a criminal trial the right â€Å"to be confronted with the witnesses against him† and â€Å"to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor. Therefore full disclosure of the facts is essential to the carrying out justice of the Sixth Amendment right to face adversaries. The Supreme Court concluded that when the grounds for asserting privilege against the production of subpoenaed material sought for the use in a criminal proceeding is based on a general interest in confidentially, the claim of privilege must yield to the specific need for evidence. The Supreme Court justices exerted strenuous effort to agree upon a decision in this case. Their efforts resulted with a unanimous 8 to 0 ruling, ordering President Nixon to comply with the subpoena and produces the tapes and documentation to use as evidence in the trial court. In regards to the claims of absolute executive privilege the Supreme took into account that the President’s communications and activities encompass a wide range of sensitive material and is therefore entitled him deference. However since the basis for asserting privilege was not related to important military or diplomatic secrets affecting national security, the need to ensure a fair trial outweighed the principle of executive privilege. Ultimately the Supreme Court’s final ruling gave preference to the fundamental demands of due process of the law in the fair administration of justice. My opinion is that the President refused to turn over the evidence because it contained relevant facts that would indicate his involvement; therefore invoking a right to privilege of confidentiality was a way in which to avoid an order that could possibly reveal information that could convict him as well. However despite the President great dissent for the ruling, once he exercise the order by the Supreme Court to produce the relevant evidence, the content undoubtedly revealed the President participation in the Watergate scandal. As a result of this President Nixon resigned from office in effort to avoid impeachment, becoming the first President of the United Stated to ever resign his position.